China: A Shipping: Eastern China (PRC Firms) Overview

On 28 October 2025, the 18th Session of the Standing Committee of the 14th National People’s Congress adopted the newly revised Maritime Code of the People’s Republic of China. The first comprehensive overhaul of the Code since its 1993 implementation, it will take effect on 1 May 2026. Beyond expanding the number of Articles from 278 to 310, the revision achieves a profound qualitative transformation and systemic upgrade of China’s maritime legal framework, addressing three decades of changes in shipping practice, aligning with the national strategies of becoming a “Leading Transportation Power” and “Strong Maritime Nation”, and consolidating the legal foundation for China’s transition from a “major shipping country” to a “global maritime power”.

Terminating the “Dual-Track” System: Unifying Domestic and International Shipping Rules

A core breakthrough of this revision is resolving the 30-year “dual-track” legal application dilemma. Article 2 of the original Code excluded domestic coastal maritime cargo transport from Chapter IV’s core rules, leading to separate regulations for international and domestic transport and causing legal fragmentation. The new Code deletes this restrictive clause, fully incorporating domestic coastal cargo transport into its scope for the first time.

This reform unifies core rules (transport documents, carrier liability basis, exemptions, liability limits) for both international and domestic routes, providing shipping enterprises with a stable, predictable legal environment and streamlining dispute resolution. Necessary distinctions remain: domestic carriers bear stricter full-voyage seaworthiness obligations and cannot invoke “nautical fault” or specific “fire” exemptions, balancing cargo owners’ and carriers’ interests. It resolves the legal vacuum in domestic coastal transport and advances the co-ordination of domestic and international markets and institutional openness.

Embracing Digitalisation: Legal Foundation for Electronic Shipping Documents

Amid a rapidly digitalising economy, the digital transformation of the shipping industry is inevitable. However, the inefficiency of paper bills of lading and the uncertain legal status of electronic documents have hindered developments. The new Code adds an “Electronic Transport Records” Section in the “Contracts of Carriage of Goods by Sea” Chapter, legally establishing the equivalence of electronic and paper transport documents.

Drawing on international standards like the UNCITRAL Model Law on Electronic Transferable Records, this system clarifies requirements for the validity, use, transfer and secure conversion of electronic records with paper documents. It removes legal barriers to full digitalisation of core shipping documents (bills of lading, sea waybills, etc), reducing loss/forgery risks, cutting costs and enhancing supply chain efficiency, enabling China’s shipping industry to align with global digital trends.

Enhancing Equity and Ecological Protection: Legislative Solicitude and Responsibility

The revision optimises rights and obligations allocation, emphasising fairness. Regarding carrier liability, it clarifies “receipt” and “delivery” duties, refines the definition of “actual carrier” thus clarifying the legal status of port operators. For “unclaimed cargo at discharge port”, it shifts cost/risk liability from the consignee to the shipper and imposes a carrier’s timely notification obligation, clarifying accountability and reducing disputes.

Regarding passenger rights, the revised Code unifies and raises carrier liability limits for domestic and international maritime passenger transport, introduces compulsory liability insurance/financial security obligations for carriers, and allows direct claims by passengers against insurers, strengthening protection of the right to life and dignity.

Notably, the new Code incorporates “strengthening marine ecological protection” into its legislative purposes, improves the ship-source oil pollution liability system with a dedicated chapter, establishes compulsory insurance and compensation funds, and stipulates that pollution damage is not included in General Average. It internalises ecological civilisation requirements (a new paradigm of development and governance involving the harmonious coexistence and sustainable development of people, nature and society) into legal obligations to promote green and sustainable shipping.

The new Code raises maritime claim liability limits from those set out in the 1976 Convention on the Limitation of Liability for Maritime Claims (LLMC 1976) to the 1996 Protocol level. Aligning with industry needs and international rules, it balances interests between shipowners/cargo owners and passengers/carriers, strengthens claimant protection, and enhances international compatibility and recognition of China’s maritime legal system.

Refining Foreign-Related Rule of Law: Strengthening Institutional Discourse and Countermeasures

As a key law affecting foreign affairs, the new Code strengthens the application of Chinese law in international relations by adding mandatory application clauses: Chapter IV applies to international maritime cargo transport contracts with loading/discharge ports in China. Regardless of contractual choice-of-law agreements, core matters are governed by China’s Maritime Code, resolving ambiguities in traditional private international law, protecting Chinese parties’ rights, and demonstrating China’s transition from an international rule “taker” to a “maker”.

Additionally, it adds countermeasure clauses, authorising reciprocal measures if other countries or regions adopt discriminatory policies against China’s maritime transport or shipbuilding. Elevating administrative countermeasures to law provides a domestic legal basis for addressing unilateralism and protectionism, strengthening the legal tools at China’s disposal to safeguard its industrial interests and its interpretation of fair trade.

Alignment with the Civil Code: Optimising Synergy Between Special and General Laws

As a special civil law, the new Code aligns with the Civil Code: it retains the one-year, short limitation period for maritime cargo transport contracts to meet international shipping efficiency needs while the rules covering suspension/interruption of the statute of limitations are aligned with the Civil Code. It prioritises “market price at delivery place and time” for cargo value calculation, aligning with the full compensation principle, and the maritime insurance chapter adds the insurer’s obligation to explain standard clauses, echoing the Civil Code’s contract rules, thus ensuring harmony across the legal system and application efficiency.

Introduction of Ad Hoc Arbitration

China’s current Arbitration Act restricts domestic ad hoc arbitration by requiring “designation of an arbitration commission” as a valid arbitration agreement element. However, foreign ad hoc arbitration awards fall under the New York Convention and can be recognised and enforced by Chinese courts per Article 543 of the Civil Procedure Law Judicial Interpretation. Recognising the international widespread use of ad hoc arbitration for maritime disputes, the draft revised Arbitration Act innovatively establishes a domestic ad hoc arbitration system, limiting its application to foreign-related maritime disputes and foreign-related disputes between enterprises registered in Pilot Free Trade Zones. Currently, the China Maritime Law Association and China Maritime Arbitration Commission have issued corresponding ad hoc arbitration rules, laying the foundation for system development.

The Maritime Code revision is a systematic effort rooted in national conditions. It is future-oriented and incorporates an international perspective. It resolves historical issues such as the “dual-track” system, paves the way for digital and green shipping, optimises rights allocation, strengthens passenger and ecological protection, improves domestic legal alignment, and enhances foreign-related maritime legal capacity and institutional discourse. Its implementation will inject legal momentum into creating a stable, fair and transparent maritime environment, fostering high-quality shipping and trade development, and serving the construction of a strong maritime and shipping nation.

2025年10月28日，十四届全国人大常委会第十八次会议表决通过新修订的《中华人民共和国海商法》。这部1993年施行以来首次全面大修的法律，将于2026年5月1日实施。修订不仅实现条文从278条增至310条的量变，更推动中国海商法治体系的质变与系统性升级，回应三十余年航运实践变迁，对接交通强国、海洋强国战略，夯实中国从“航运大国”向“航运强国”转型的法治基础。

终结双轨制，构建统一国内国际航运市场规则

本次修订的核心突破之一，是打破施行三十余年的法律适用“双轨制”。原《海商法》第二条将国内港口间海上货物运输排除在第四章核心规则外，导致国际与国内沿海运输适用两套规则，造成法律割裂与实践困境。新法删除该限制性条款，首次将国内沿海货物运输全面纳入调整范围。

这一变革实现国际与国内航线在运输单证、承运人责任基础、免责事由、赔偿限额等核心规则的基本统一，为航运企业提供稳定可预期的法律环境，简化海事纠纷处理流程。同时保留必要差异，如国内运输承运人承担更严格的全程适航义务，不适用“航海过失”和特定“火灾”免责，平衡货方与承运方利益。此举破解国内沿海运输“于法无据”难题，推动统筹国内国际市场与制度型开放。

拥抱数字化，为航运单证电子化奠定法律基石

数字经济下，航运业数字化转型已成必然，但传统纸质提单效率低下，电子单证法律效力不确定制约行业发展。新《海商法》在“海上货物运输合同”章专设“电子运输记录”一节，从法律层面确立电子运输记录与纸质单证的同等效力。

该制度借鉴《联合国贸易法委员会电子可转让记录示范法》等国际规则，明确电子记录生效、使用、转让及与纸质单证安全转换的要求，扫清核心航运单证全面电子化的法律障碍，降低丢失、伪造风险，节约企业成本，提升供应链效率与安全性，助力中国航运业对接国际数字化前沿。

强化权益平衡与生态保护，体现立法温度与担当

修订优化各方权利义务配置，强化公平原则。承运人责任方面，明确“接收”“交付”货物义务，优化“实际承运人”定义，明晰港口经营人等主体法律地位；针对“卸货港无人提货”难题，将相关费用与风险承担主体从收货人调整为托运人，课予承运人及时通知义务，厘清责任、减少纠纷。

旅客权益保护上，该修订统一并提高国内与国际海上旅客运输承运人赔偿责任限额，增设承运人强制责任保险或财务保证制度，允许旅客直接向责任保险人索赔，强化生命权与人格尊严保障权利。

新法将“加强海洋生态环境保护”纳入立法目的，健全船舶油污损害责任体系，专章规定油污损害责任，建立强制责任保险与赔偿基金制度，明确污染损害不列入共同海损，将海洋生态文明要求（一种涉及人、自然和社会和谐共存和可持续发展的新发展和治理范式）内化为法律义务，推动航运业绿色可持续发展。

新《海商法》将海事赔偿责任限制标准从1976年《海事索赔责任限制公约》提升至1996年议定书标准，契合行业发展需求，衔接国际核心规则，平衡船货双方、旅客与承运人利益，强化受害方权益保障，提升中国海事法律制度的国际兼容性与认可度。

完善涉外法治，增强制度性话语权与反制能力

作为重要的影响涉外事务法律，新《海商法》通过增设强制适用条款，明确“装货港或卸货港位于中国境内的国际海上货物运输合同，适用本法第四章规定”，以此完善中国法律在涉外关系中的适用。无论合同约定准据法，核心事项均适用中国《海商法》，解决传统国际私法规则模糊问题，维护中国当事方权益，彰显中国从国际规则“接受者”向“制定者”转变。

此外，新法增设反制条款，授权中国在有关国家或地区对中国海上运输、船舶建造领域采取歧视性措施时，可采取相应反制措施。将行政法规中的反制措施上升至法律层面，为应对单边主义和保护主义提供国内法依据，强化中国用于维护产业利益与其所理解的公平贸易环境的法治工具。

衔接《民法典》，优化特别法与一般法的体系协同

作为民法特别法，新《海商法》注重与《民法典》衔接：诉讼时效方面，维持海上货物运输合同一年短时效以适配国际航运效率需求，同时时效中断、中止的规则与《民法典》相协调；货物实际价值计算优先采用“交货地交付时的市场价格”，贴近完全赔偿原则；海上保险合同章节增设保险人对格式条款的提示说明义务，呼应《民法典》合同规则，保障法律体系内部和谐与适用效能。

引入临时仲裁

中国现行《仲裁法》将“选定仲裁委员会”作为仲裁协议有效要件，限制境内临时仲裁发展。但境外临时仲裁裁决属《纽约公约》适用范围，可依《民事诉讼法》司法解释第五百四十三条获中国法院承认与执行。鉴于国际上广泛采用临时仲裁解决海事纠纷，《仲裁法》修订草案创新性设立境内临时仲裁制度，明确适用范围限于涉外海事纠纷及自由贸易试验区内登记企业间的涉外因素纠纷。目前，中国海商法协会、中国海事仲裁委员会已出台相应临时仲裁规则，奠定制度发展基础。

本次《海商法》修订立足国情、面向未来、兼具国际视野，解决“双轨制”等历史遗留问题，前瞻性铺就航运数字化、绿色化道路，优化各方权责配置，强化旅客权益与海洋生态保护，完善国内法律衔接，增强海事领域涉外法治能力与制度性话语权。新法施行将为营造稳定公平透明的航运法治环境、促进航运贸易高质量发展、服务海洋强国与航运强国建设注入法治新动能。