CHINA: An Introduction to International Trade/WTO: Respondent (PRC Firms)
International Trade Remedies from the Perspective of China's Response to Complaints
The data from the China Trade Remedies Information website indicates that in 2023, there were a total of 87 newly initiated trade remedy cases globally against China. The top three countries or regions were India (22 cases), the United States (12 cases), and the European Union (9 cases).
From an industrial perspective, in 2023, China faced anti-dumping investigations in 17 industries. Most cases were related to the chemical industry (22 cases) and the metal products industry (16 cases). This data may reflect the concentration of China's chemical industry, due to its historical capacity, abundant raw materials, and low-cost pricing. Analysis indicates that anti-dumping, countervailing and safeguards investigations accounted for 72.41% (63 cases), 13.79% (12 cases), 13.79% (12 cases) respectively.
In comparison to the 46 newly initiated cases in 2022, China experienced a significant increase in 2023. This growth may mainly be attributed to an upsurge in foreign exports due to China's lift of pandemic control policies and the rapid recovery of global production capacity, leading to heightened trade tensions.
Overview of U.S. Trade Remedy Investigations Against China
The United States is among the countries that initiate the most trade remedy investigations against China. Amidst the ongoing U.S.-China trade tensions and the relocation of industries by Chinese companies to Southeast Asian countries due to tariff preferences and low manufacturing costs in Europe and the United States, the U.S. has responded with frequent investigations, including anti-circumvention investigation, anti-dumping investigations, countervailing investigations, and actions under the Uyghur Forced Labor Prevention Act (UFLPA) to address China's industrial relocation.
In 2023, the U.S. focused on anti-dumping investigations against products such as tires and aluminum profiles from Southeast Asian countries like Thailand, Indonesia, and Malaysia. This led to legal actions involving Chinese companies operating in these Southeast Asian countries, reflecting the U.S.'s intensified response to China's industrial relocation.
In 2016, the Enforce and Protect Act of 2015 (EAPA) came into effect, introducing anti-circumvention investigation rules enforced by U.S. Customs and Border Protection (CBP). This legislation allows U.S. domestic industries to participate as the petitioners and “supervise” whether CBP enforces regulations strictly. Other U.S. government agencies are also authorised to request CBP to initiate anti-circumvention investigations.
Additionally, in June 2022, the Uyghur Forced Labor Prevention Act (UFLPA) became effective. UFLPA prohibited the importation of goods, products, articles, and wares produced wholly or in part in Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region, China, or by certain entities. This legislation applies not only to goods directly exported from China to the U.S. but also to goods indirectly exported to the U.S. using the Chinese supply chain by third countries.
As of December 4, 2023, CBP's latest data revealed that in the 2023 fiscal year alone, the U.S. conducted 1559 investigations on goods originating from China. Out of these, 588 were denied entry, 809 were allowed entry, and 162 were temporarily held. The total value of the goods was approximately USD238 million, with a focus on industries such as apparel, footwear, and textiles (400 cases), agricultural products (281 cases), and industrial and manufacturing materials (272 cases).
Overview of EU Trade Measures Against China
In 2023, the European Union primarily aims to use the Foreign Subsidies Regulation and the European Instrument for Economic Coercion to safeguard its economic interests, aiming to encourage other countries to adhere to its established standards and enhance its influence in reshaping international trade rules.
Since 2019, typical cases of countervailing investigations, such as the “Glass Fiber Fabric Case,” the EU General Court has determined financial assistance provided by Chinese policy banks or state-owned enterprises to overseas Chinese enterprises as subsidies from the host country government to Chinese enterprises. On November 28, 2022, the EU Council approved the “Regulation on Foreign Subsidies Distorting the Internal Market of the European Union.”
In addition to cross-border subsidy regulations, in 2023, the European Commission initiated anti-subsidy investigations against Chinese electric cars, biofuels, wind power, and the steel industry. In September 2023, the European Commission initiated an anti-subsidy investigation to Chinese electric cars. It's noteworthy that this particular investigation was not initiated based on the application from EU domestic industries, but by the European Commission. Consequently, this investigation raised questions from the EU public as well. German Chancellor Scholz, for instance, expressed skepticism about the necessity of imposing additional tariffs on Chinese electric cars, stating, “It is unnecessary to impose additional tariffs on Chinese electric cars.”
Overview of GCC and Saudi Arabia Investigations Against China
It is worth noting that at the end of 2023, Saudi Arabia announced substantial investments in the aluminum industry based on the growing demand for aluminum products in areas such as renewable energy, electric cars, and aviation. This initiative aims to diversify the economy, strengthen energy transition, and reduce dependence on the oil economy.
Against this backdrop, on November 16, 2023, the GCC Secretariat General for Anti-Dumping, Countervailing Measures, and Safeguards announced an anti-dumping investigation into aluminum alloy products imported from China.
Simultaneously, on November 20 and 30, 2023, Saudi Arabia initiated two anti-dumping investigations against China. One involves anti-dumping investigations into textiles or textile products coated with polyvinyl chloride originating from China, and the other pertains to sulfonated naphthalene formaldehyde concrete admixtures. Despite the reconciliation in 2021 following the rift and blockade imposed by some GCC countries, including Saudi Arabia, against Qatar in 2017, Saudi Arabia remains concerned about the effectiveness of the GCC's operational mechanism. Therefore, it independently launched trade remedy investigations parallel to those conducted by the GCC.
Chinese Investigation Trends
As a counterattack to the EU's electrical car anti-subsidy investigation, China's Ministry of Commerce announced an anti-dumping case investigation into brandy imported from the EU, based on the application from the China Alcoholic Drinks Association. However, China maintains a prudent attitude on trade remedies measures. In 2021, China did not initiate any trade remedy investigations; in 2022, China filed two anti-dumping cases; and in 2023, China initiated only one anti-dumping investigation against the United States. Furthermore, in 2020, China imposed anti-dumping and countervailing duties on imported barley from Australia, but as tension eased, on August 4, 2023, China lifted the measure. Similarly, an anti-dumping and countervailing duty review application for Australian wine was filed by the Ministry of Commerce on November 30, 2023, indicating that measures against Australian wine may also be revoked in the near future.
Conclusion
The United States responds to China's industrial relocation through anti-dumping investigations and new measures like the Uyghur Forced Labor Prevention Act, while the European Union employs the Foreign Subsidies Regulation and the European Instrument for Economic Coercion to safeguard its economic interests. We anticipate that the trend of the United States addressing China's industrial shift towards Southeast Asia through these means will likely continue.
Beyond Europe and the United States, with the deepening of the Belt and Road Initiative, the growth in trade between China and Belt and Road countries may lead to more countries along the Belt and Road utilizing international trade remedy measures. This is exemplified by the anti-dumping investigations initiated by Saudi Arabia and the GCC against China's aluminum alloy products in 2023.
中国应诉视角下的国际贸易救济情况
中国贸易救济信息网数据显示，2023年，全球针对中国发起的原审贸易救济案件共87件，排名前三的申诉国家或地区分别为印度（22件）、美国（12件）和欧盟（9件）。
从行业角度来看，2023年，中国共有17个行业被发起反倾销调查，其中涉案最多的为化学原料和制品工业（22件）和金属制品工业（16件）。 该数据与中国化工行业较为集中，产能在过去粗放时代且中国化工产业原料多、成本低、价格低而具备强有力的竞争优势有关。从案件类型角度来看，反倾销63件，占比72.41%，反补贴12件，占比13.79%，保障措施12件，占比13.79%。
与2022年的46件应诉案件比，2023年中国应诉的国际贸易救济案件显现大幅增长。2023年，中国放宽疫情防控政策，对外出口增长，同时全球产能迅速复苏，贸易摩擦因而增加。
一、 美国针对中国贸易救济调查概览
美国是针对中国发起贸易救济调查最多的国家之一。随着中美贸易战持续，以及东南亚国家在欧美国家出口享有的关税优惠待遇和低廉制造成本，中国企业选择向越南、东南亚、墨西哥等地进行产业转移。同时，美国也开始针对该趋势，频繁通过反规避调查、反倾销调查、反补贴调查和《维吾尔强迫劳动预防法》（UFLPA）应对中国产业转移。
2023年，美国着重对泰国、印度尼西亚、马来西亚等东南亚国家的轮胎、铝型材等产品发起反倾销调查，导致中国企业在东南亚国家涉诉，反映了美国加强应对中国产业转移的趋势。
2016年《2015年执行和保护法案》（EAPA）生效，引入了一项由美国海关及边境保护署（CBP）执行的反规避调查规则。此项立法后，美国国内产业可以申请人身份参与并且“监督”CBP是否严格执法。另外，其他美国政府部门也因此获得授权，可要求CBP发起反规避调查。
此外，2022年6月，《维吾尔强迫劳动预防法》（UFLPA）生效，禁止进口全部或部分在中国新疆维吾尔自治区开采、生产或制造或由某些实体生产的任何货物、商品、物品和商品。该法案既适用于中国直接对美出口商品，也适用于使用中国供应链的第三国间接对美出口商品。
2023年12月4日CBP最新公布的数据显示，仅2023财年，美国对原产于中国的商品共进行了1559起调查，其中被拒绝入境的有588起，被准许入境的有809起，暂缓放行的162起。货物总价值约2.38亿，审查货物的行业集中在服装、鞋类及纺织品（400件）、农产品（281件）、工业和制造业材料（272件）。
二、 欧盟对中国贸易措施概览
欧盟在2023年主要应用《外国补贴条例》和《欧洲反经济胁迫工具》来维护本经济体利益，试图使其他国家遵循其制定的标准以提升其重构国际经贸规则的话语权。
2019年以来，以“玻璃纤维织物案”为典型的反补贴调查案件中，欧盟普通法院将中国政策性银行或国有企业向境外中资企业提供的资金援助认定为东道国政府向中资企业提供的补贴。2022年11月28日，欧盟理事会批准《关于扭曲欧盟内部市场的外国政府补贴条例》。
除了对跨境补贴实施反补贴调查以外，2023年，欧盟委员会相继宣布对中国电动汽车、生物柴油、风电产业、钢铁产业发起反补贴调查。2023年9月，欧盟委员会还宣布对中国电动汽车发起反补贴调查。值得注意的是，本次反补贴调查并非基于欧盟盟内产业的申请而发起的，而是由欧盟委员会主动发起。因此这次调查也引起了欧盟内部部分人员的质疑。德国总理朔尔茨就曾就关于电动汽车的反补贴调查表示，“对中国电动汽车征收额外关税是没有必要的。”
三、海合会和沙特对中国的调查概览
值得注意的是，在2023年年底，沙特阿拉伯宣布未来将基于铝产品在可再生能源、电动汽车和航空工业等领域日益增长的需求对铝工业进行大规模投资，以推动经济多元化，加强能源转型，减少对石油经济的依赖。
在此背景下，2023年11月16日，海合会国际贸易反损害行为技术秘书局发布公告，对自中国进口的铝合金产品发起反倾销调查。
与此同时，2023年11月20日和30日，沙特阿拉伯向中国发起了两项反倾销调查，分别为对原产于中国的聚氯乙烯涂层的纺织品或织物产品和磺化萘甲醛混凝土改性剂启动反倾销调查。2017年海合会部分国家与卡塔尔断交并实施禁运封锁后，虽然在国际社会的撮合和内部成员的妥协下于2021年重归于好，但沙特阿拉伯仍担忧海合会运行机制的有效性，因此自行发起了平行于海合会的贸易救济调查。
四、中国调查趋势
作为对欧盟反补贴调查的应对，中国商务部根据中国酒业协会的申请于2024年1月5日宣布对原产于欧盟的进口的白兰地发起反倾销立案调查。但同时，中方保持对使用贸易救济的审慎态度。2021年，中国对全球没有发起任何贸易救济措施；2022年，中国发起了2件反倾销案件；2023年，中国仅提出了1件针对美国的丙酸反倾销调查。此外，中国于2020年决定对原产于澳大利亚的进口大麦征收反倾销税和反补贴税，后与澳大利亚关系缓和，也于2023年8月4日取消了关于原产于澳大利亚的进口大麦所适用反倾销措施和反补贴措施。与欧洲白兰地案件背景类似的澳洲葡萄酒案件似乎也开始进入尾声。2023年11月30日，商务部就对原产于澳大利亚的进口相关葡萄酒进行反倾销和反补贴复审的申请进行了立案，在不久的将来可能会同样取消双反措施。
五、结语
美国通过反倾销调查、《维吾尔强迫劳动预防法》等应对中国产业转移，则欧盟运用《外国补贴条例》和《欧洲反经济胁迫工具》捍卫经济利益。我们预测欧美通过以上手段应对中国产业向东南亚转移的趋势仍会继续。
除了欧美国家，我们认为，随着一带一路的纵深，中国与一带一路国家的贸易增长，未来可能会有更多一带一路国家对中国使用国际贸易救济手段，正如2023年沙特和海合会对中国铝合金产品发起的反倾销调查。