CHINA: An Introduction to Shipping: Eastern China (PRC Firms)

The Latest Practice and Theory Developments of China's Maritime Trial

In the maritime judicial field, China has established a comprehensive maritime judiciary system with a range of trial institutions and become a jurisdiction which handled the largest number of maritime cases in the world. Throughout 2023, China continues to be open and pragmatic, improve legal environment for shipping and trade, and build a world-facing shipping centre as well as a maritime judicial centre with great international influence.

Steady progress in the amendment of maritime law

Up to year 2023, it has been 30 years since the Maritime Code of the People’s Republic of China (hereinafter referred to as the “Maritime Code”) was implemented. In 2017, the first working meeting for the review and study of the Maritime Code (Proposed Draft Amendments) was held at Dalian Maritime University. On 7 September 2018, the Standing Committee of the 13th National People’s Congress released its legislative plan, and the Maritime Code (Revision) was listed in the second category. In January 2020, its Drafts for Revision and Approval was completed and sent by the Ministry of Transport to the Ministry of Justice for review. In May 2023, the Ministry of Transport released its 2023 Legislative Plan and confirmed that it would cooperate with the Ministry of Justice to continue to review and revise the Maritime Code.

The amendments to the Maritime Code may include the addition of a special chapter on compensation for damage caused by pollution from ships, the improvement of the right in rem for ships, the standardisation of rights and obligations of crew members, the expansion of the scope of the “actual carrier”, and the improvement of the regime of limitation of liability for maritime claims, etc. It is believed that, after the amendment, the Maritime Code will match better the latest development of other Chinese laws and international maritime legislations, so as to better promote and facilitate the development of the shipping economy and international trade.

Limited expansion of the jurisdiction of maritime courts

Returning to the specialised position of maritime courts, maritime administrative and criminal cases’ jurisdiction are increasingly exercised by maritime courts. In addition, public interest litigation for marine natural resources and ecological environment, including civil public interest litigation, criminal incidental civil public interest litigation and administrative public interest litigation, also fall under the jurisdiction of maritime courts, with a limited expansion of the scope of jurisdiction of the maritime courts.

In 2015, the Supreme People’s Court promulgated the Provisions on the Scope of Cases to Be Accepted by Maritime Courts, which incorporated maritime administrative cases into the jurisdiction of maritime courts, specifically including maritime administrative licenses, maritime administrative penalties and maritime administrative compulsion, etc.

In February 2017, the Supreme People’s Court designated the Ningbo Maritime Court to exercise the jurisdiction of maritime criminal cases on a pilot basis. In October 2020, the Haikou Maritime Court was also included in the pilot programme. Maritime criminal cases shall be investigated by marine polices, prosecuted by procuratorates and heard by maritime courts. The criminal liability of shipowners, charterers, actual managers, masters, and crew members has received increasing attention. The crimes involved mainly are crime of causing traffic casualties, crime of major liability accident and crime of illegal catching of aquatic products, etc.

In May 2022, the Provisions on Several Issues concerning the Handling of Public Interest Lawsuits Involving Marine Natural Resources, Ecology and Environment was promulgated and came into force, which clearly stipulates that maritime courts have jurisdiction over relevant cases.

The limited expansion of the jurisdiction of maritime courts gives full play to the advantages of maritime courts in terms of their professionalism, technicality and foreign-relatedness, combating illegal and criminal activities at sea, regulating the order of maritime traffic, and strengthening the protection of marine natural resources and the ecological environment.

The Supreme People’s Court’s unremitting efforts in the unification of the application of laws 

Although China is a jurisdiction of civil law system, cases have been increasingly valued in judicial practice in recent years. According to the Guiding Opinions of the Supreme People’s Court on Unifying the Application of Laws and Strengthening the Search for Similar Cases (Trial Implementation) (which came into effect on 31 July 2020), guiding cases, typical cases and effective cases issued by the Supreme People’s Court as well as reference cases and effective cases issued by the High People’s Courts of the provinces (autonomous regions or municipalities directly under China's Central Government) may be used as the scope of the search for similar cases. Courts shall make decisions by reference to the guiding cases, and other cases may be used as references for making decisions.

In the maritime field, cases selected as guiding cases over the years include but are not limited to disputes on contracts for the carriage of goods by sea, liability for damage caused by ships collision, salvage, applications for setting up limitation funds for liability of maritime claims, liability for damage caused by pollution at sea, shipbuilding contracts, and marine insurance contracts. The guiding cases respond positively to disputes in judicial practice, covering almost all legal relationships regulated by the Maritime Code, providing clear and specific guidance and reference for adjudication of similar cases, and helping Chinese courts standardise the scale of adjudication and promote uniformity in the application of law.

Chinese courts becoming a pragmatic option for forum shopping 

The Chinese courts have become popular in the process of forum shopping. The relevant regulations of limitation of liability for maritime claims under the Maritime Code remains consistent with the 1976 Convention on Limitation of Liability for Maritime Claims (the 1976 Convention), but the fund limit has not been increased following that the 1996 Protocol to the 1976 Convention came into force. In short, the amount of limitation of liability for maritime claims under the Maritime Code remains at the lower level of the 1976 Convention, which is very favourable to shipowners, salvors and insurers.

Taking collision cases as an example, due to the suddenness of the accident there are high requirements for the selection of litigation strategy and the speed of response in related claims and/or defences. Even in the case of a collision between two foreign vessels, if the place of the accident is within the jurisdiction of Chinese maritime courts, the parties (especially the party mainly blamed for the accident) can conveniently and efficiently apply for the arrest of the vessel, set up a limitation fund for liability of maritime claims, and file a lawsuit in Chinese courts, and can take full advantage of the lower amount of limitation of liability to gain a head start in subsequent negotiations and minimise the losses.

It is believed that with all the progress on openness, pragmatism, transparency and efficiency outline above, China’s maritime judicial circle will further embrace and be a key part of the global maritime practice.

中国海事审判实务和理论的最新发展 

在海事司法领域，中国已建立完善的海事审判机构体系并成为受理海事案件最多的法域地区。2023年，中国继续开放、务实，深化航运贸易法律环境建设，打造面向全球的航运中心以及具有较高国际影响力的海事司法中心。

海商法的修改稳步推进 

截止到2023年，《中华人民共和国海商法》（以下简称“《海商法》”）已实施三十周年。2017年，《海商法（修改建议稿）》审核研究第一次工作会议在大连海事大学召开。2018年9月7日，十三届全国人大常委会发布立法规划，“《海商法》（修改）”被列为第二类项目。2020年1月，《海商法（修改送审稿）》完成并由交通运输部送至司法部审核。2023年5月，交通运输部发布2023年立法计划，对于《海商法》修订，确认将配合司法部继续开展审核修改工作。

《海商法》的修改可能包括新增船舶污染损害赔偿专章、完善船舶物权制度、规范船员的权利和义务、扩大“实际承运人范围”、完善海事赔偿责任限制制度等。相信经过修改，《海商法》能够更好地匹配中国其他法律、国际海事立法的新发展，从而更好地推动和便利航运经济、国际贸易的发展。

海事法院管辖范围的有限扩张 

回归海事法院的专门性定位，海事行政案件、刑事案件逐步由海事法院行使管辖权。此外，海洋自然资源与生态环境公益诉讼的案件，包括民事公益诉讼、刑事附带民事公益诉讼和行政公益诉讼亦由海事法院管辖，海事法院的管辖范围有限扩张。

2015年，最高人民法院颁布《最高人民法院关于海事法院受理案件范围的规定》，将海事行政案件纳入海事法院管辖范围，具体受理对象包括海事行政许可、海事行政处罚、海事行政强制等。

2017年2月，最高人民法院指定宁波海事法院试点管辖海事刑事案件。2020年10月，海口海事法院也被纳入试点。海事刑事案件由海警立案侦察、检察机关提起公诉，海事法院进行审理。船东、实际承租人、实际经营人、船长、船员等的刑事责任受到越来越多的重视。涉及到的罪名主要有交通肇事罪、重大责任事故罪、非法捕捞水产品罪等。

2022年5月，《关于办理海洋自然资源与生态环境公益诉讼案件若干问题的规定》颁布并施行，明确规定海事法院对于相关案件具有管辖权。

海事法院管辖范围的有限扩张，有利于充分发挥海事法院专业性、技术性和涉外性的优势，打击海上违法犯罪活动，规范海上交通秩序，加强对海洋自然资源、生态环境的保护。

最高人民法院在法律适用统一方面的不懈努力 

中国虽然是大陆法系国家，近年来案例在司法实践中愈发受到重视。根据《最高人民法院关于统一法律适用加强类案检索的指导意见（试行）》（2020年7月31日生效），最高院发布的指导性案例、典型案例及裁判生效的案件；本省（自治区、直辖市）高级人民法院发布的参考性案例及裁判生效的案件等可作为类案检索的范围。法院应当参照指导性案例作出裁判，其他案例可以作为作出裁判的参考。

在海事海商领域，历年来入选指导性案例的案由包括但不限于海上货物运输合同纠纷、船舶碰撞损害责任纠纷、海难救助纠纷、申请设立海事赔偿责任限制基金、海上污染损害责任纠纷、船舶建造合同纠纷、海上保险合同纠纷等。指导性案例积极回应司法实践中的争议，涵盖了几乎所有海商法调整的法律关系，为类案裁判提供了明确具体的指导和参照，有助于中国法院统一裁判尺度、促进法律适用的统一性。

中国法院成为择地诉讼的务实选择 

在择地诉讼过程中，中国法院越来越变得具有独特的吸引力。《海商法》中关于海事赔偿责任限制规定仍保持和1976年《海事索赔责任限制公约》（1976年公约）一致，但基金限额并未随着1976年公约《1996年议定书》生效后提高。简单而言，《海商法》项下的海事赔偿责任限制金额仍保持1976年公约的较低金额，对船舶所有人、救助人、保险人均非常有利。

以碰撞案件为例，由于事故发生突然，在相关索赔和（或）抗辩案件中对于诉讼策略选择、响应速度均有较高要求。即便是发生在两艘外轮之间的碰撞事故，如事故地点在中国海事法院管辖范围，当事方（尤其是应承担主要责任的肇事方）可以很便利、高效的在中国法院申请扣押船舶、设立海事赔偿责任限制基金、提起诉讼，且可以充分利用较低的责任限制金额在后续谈判中占领先机、减少损失。

我们相信，随着在以上提到的在开放、务实、透明、高效方面的进展，中国海事司法界将进一步拥抱国际海事业务并成为国际海事业务的重要组成部分。